The Germanic peoples were tribal groups that lived in Northern Europe during the Classical Antiquity and the early Middle Ages. In modern science, this refers to both the inhabitants of Germania and all Germanic-speaking peoples from that period. This blog focuses on the Germanic peoples who lived until around the 1st century CE in the area of 'Greater Germania'.
Archaeological Classification
The Germanic Iron Age is divided into three periods: the Pre-Roman Iron Age (500 - 100 BCE). The Roman Iron Age (0 – 375 CE) and the Germanic Iron Age (375 – 800 CE)
This blog focuses on the Pre-Roman and Roman Iron Age. Check out our other blog about the Germanic Iron Age and Migration Period.
Archaeological Cultures & Migrations
In archaeology, we speak of many different cultures. Sometimes these overlap with ethnic cultures, but often they don't. At the same time, the transition between cultures needs to be viewed with nuance. In many cases, people simply underwent a change in customs. See this article for more information about archaeological and ethnic cultures.
The Origins of the Germanic Peoples
The Germanic languages belong to the Indo-European language family. According to scholars, these languages arose through the spread of Indo-European languages in the Copper Age, from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe around 3,500 BCE. This occurred through mixed cultures such as the Corded Ware culture, which moved towards the area of present-day Denmark, where it merged with the Funnelbeaker culture. This cultural mixing ultimately led to the Northern Bronze Age (2000–500 BCE), which is seen as the period when the predecessor of the Germanic languages emerged.
Around 500 BCE, we can speak for the first time of "Germanic peoples," based on archaeological and linguistic evidence. Their origin is characterized by the Jastorf Culture, an archaeological culture in present-day Germany and Poland. However, some scholars suggest that Germanic peoples also emerged elsewhere, for example in Jutland and South Scandinavia, pointing to multiple origins.
The Northern Iron Age
Iron was already used from 1300 BCE in the Mediterranean region, but became widespread in Northern Europe only from 500 BCE onwards. Due to the collapse of trade at the end of the Bronze Age, bronze became scarce. As a substitute, people began extracting iron from peat bogs. This arose through contact with the Celtic Hallstatt Culture from Central Europe, through which knowledge and technology were shared across a large area. The Hallstatt Culture evolved from the Urnfield culture of the Late Bronze Age (1,200 BCE). The 3rd phase of the Hallstatt Culture marked the beginning of the Early Iron Age in Central Europe (800-600 BCE). This was later followed by the Celtic La Tène Culture (450 BCE–100 BCE). The northern Iron Age cultures were probably carried by Germanic speakers.
La Tène Influences
Burial rituals, such as cremation and urn burial, continued Bronze Age traditions. Influences from the Central European La Tène culture reached Scandinavia, resulting in finds such as swords, spear tips, jewelry and cauldrons, including the famous Gundestrup Cauldron and Dejbjerg Wagons.
The Jastorf Culture was an Iron Age culture located in what is now Germany, extending north to Jutland and east to Poland. This culture existed between 600 - 100 BCE and formed the southern part of the Pre-Roman Iron Age. There is debate about whether this expansion was a warlike migration or a peaceful cultural spread. In the Netherlands, it is believed that Iron Age innovations stem from local developments and mutual influence. Even at this time, merchants bridged long distances and the various Central and Northern European cultures of the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age shared many cultural and religious similarities.
The culture is named after an archaeological site near the village of Jastorf in Lower Saxony. It was characterized by the use of cremation burials in large urnfields and was strongly influenced by the Northern Bronze Age. The material culture shows a mixture of traditions, with the Northern Bronze Age leaving a clear imprint, even as influences came from the Celtic Hallstatt Culture in the south.
In the south, the Jastorf Culture bordered the Hallstatt Culture, while in the north similarities were visible with the later phases of the Northern Bronze Age. Burial fields in areas such as Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg, West Pomerania, Brandenburg and Lower Saxony show continuity of settlement from the Bronze Age deep into the Jastorf Period and beyond. Although archaeologists see Celtic and local traditions influencing each other, it is still not entirely clear how these interactions unfolded precisely.
Expansion of the Territory
Initially, the Jastorf Culture was limited to North Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein. Around 500 BCE, however, it began to expand south and west, reaching the Harz, Thuringia, Lower Silesia and the Rhineland. This expansion was made possible by the earlier departure or depopulation of these areas, as groups from the Hallstatt Culture, often identified as Celtic or Belgian, migrated to other parts of Europe, including the Mediterranean and Atlantic Europe. This migration was probably driven by climate change. Northern Europe became colder and wetter, causing harvests to fail.
The Heyday of the Jastorf Culture
At its height, the core area of the Jastorf Culture was concentrated in North Lower Saxony (the Lüneburg Heath and the lower Elbe). This area contrasted with the so-called Nienburg group (or Harpstedt-Nienburg group) in the west, along the Aller and the middle course of the Weser. The Nienburg group showed more similarities with Celtic cultures and had clear contacts with the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. Scattered finds from the Jastorf Culture have also been discovered in areas such as Berlin and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.
The Jastorf Culture, a Germanic-Celtic Mixed Culture
The Jastorf Culture reflects a unique period when influences from the Northern and Celtic worlds came together. It marks a transitional time in which local communities in Northern Europe developed their own identity, while at the same time maintaining contacts with more southern cultures. This makes the Jastorf Culture an important subject for archaeological research into early Germanic history.
Most finds from the Jastorf Culture come from burial mounds, flat graves and so-called Brand Gruben Gräber (cremation pits). Notable is that grave goods are scarce and modest, and that weapon sacrifices, which are characteristic of graves from the Migration Period, are completely absent.
Southern Expansion and Population Movements
The southernmost spread of Germanic cultures outside the Jastorf area becomes visible only at the end of the Pre-Roman Iron Age. This is evident, among other things, from the small number of Late La Tène bracelets found in Thuringia and northeastern Hesse. These finds possibly point to population movements from the Elbe/Saale region, via Main-Franconia, towards the edges of the Alps. These migrations seem to have been influenced by the rise of the Przeworsk Culture.
Another factor that may have promoted the expansion of the Jastorf Culture is the demographic vacuum that emerged in southern Germany, around the upper course of the Danube and the Rhine. From 400 BCE onwards, Celtic groups that previously inhabited this region moved away to richer areas in Gaul, Spain, Pannonia and northern Italy. This exodus created space for new communities, including those of the Jastorf Culture, to settle in the south.
In the late phase, turbulent times emerged, such as the invasions of the Teutones and Cimbri, which culminated in their defeat at Aquae Sextiae (102 BCE). Fortified settlements from this period include Borremose (Denmark) and Atuatuca (Belgium).
The First Contacts with the Romans
The first Germanic peoples mentioned in historical sources are the Bastarnae and the Cimbri. Around 100 BCE, the Cimbri and Teutones caused great upheaval in Europe through their migrations, which ultimately led to the Cimbric Wars against the Romans. Although these Germanic groups were initially successful, they were eventually defeated.
By the end of 100 BCE, the Germanic peoples expanded their territory, often at the expense of the Celtic tribes. Julius Caesar waged war against the Germanic leader Ariovistus and conquered Gaul, establishing the Rhine as the boundary for the Roman Empire. Later, the Romans also attempted to conquer areas east of the Rhine, but these attempts met with fierce resistance.
Resistance Against Rome
In 9 CE, the famous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest took place, in which the Germanic leader Arminius lured and destroyed a large Roman army. This defeat forced Rome to withdraw and limit itself to the Rhine as the eastern border. Rome subsequently attempted to keep the Germanic tribes divided, but there continued to be regular uprisings, such as the Batavian revolt in 69 CE.
An Unstable Border
After the Batavian revolt, some peace returned to the Roman border. The Romans built fortifications, such as the limes, to protect their borders. Yet contact with the Germanic peoples often remained tense, with periods of conflict and cooperation.
Roman Iron Age (0-375 CE)
The name of the Roman Iron Age stems from the grip that the Roman Empire began to exert on the Germanic tribes of Northern Europe. This period was characterized by intensive trade and cultural exchange, which left clear traces in Scandinavia.
Rome's Influence
During this period, many Roman goods were brought to Scandinavia, such as coins, vessels, bronze sculptures, glass beakers, enamelled clasps and weapons. Metal objects and pottery also took on a Roman style. Objects such as scissors and gaming pieces appeared for the first time during this period. Many Germanic tribes supplied warriors as mercenaries to the Roman Empire in this period. They returned with new ideas and adapted these within the Germanic context. As a result, from 300-400 CE onwards, the Germanic peoples increasingly began copying Roman concepts, such as building large temples (made of wood). Around this time, the runic script was introduced.
Burial Rituals and Finds
From this period, many bog bodies have been found in Denmark, Schleswig and South Sweden. Along with the bodies, weapons, household items and woollen clothing were also discovered. The most important burial tradition was cremation, but from 300 CE onwards, the burial of bodies became increasingly common.
A special find from this period are the large rowing ships from 400 CE, which were excavated at Nydam Mose in South Denmark. These ships bear witness to the advanced shipbuilding and maritime culture of that time.
Important Settlements
In 300 CE, the Gudme Hall complex was built in Denmark. This was an important centre for the elite, where both power and religion played a role. Around the same time,
