This blog follows the equipment of Publius, a Roman legionary of the second legion under Emperor Augustus in 19 BC. He fights in Iberia against rebellious tribes that resist Roman domination with guerrilla tactics.

The first century BC was a very turbulent period in Roman history, characterized by civil wars and political unrest. Due to the growing inequality in Roman society, a major conflict had arisen between land reformers and conservative aristocrats. Gaius Julius Caesar had become very popular among the people with his populist politics under these circumstances. This enabled him not only to become consul and proconsul (governor) of Gaul, but also to win the conflict between the populares and optimates and to be appointed dictator for life. His reign came to an end on the Ides of March in 44 BC, when he was assassinated by a conspiracy of optimates, enemies whom he had spared as a show of power.

The conspirators, who called themselves the liberatores (liberators), were led by Marcus Iunius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. They saw Caesar as a new king and a threat to the republic and the power of the senate that needed to be removed, despite the fact that Caesar had been a father figure to Brutus for a large part of his life. However, they misjudged that a large part of the people and the army would support them: the legions loyal to Caesar and his supporters chased them out of the Italian peninsula. These troops were now led by Caesar's three main successors, namely Marcus Antonius, his right-hand man, Lepidus, the praetor who had appointed him dictator, and Gaius Octavianus, his young grandnephew. Despite his lack of experience and young age (18 years old when Caesar died), this Octavianus would succeed in seizing power in Rome over the next decade. 

In the first year after Caesar's death, a major conflict arose between Octavianus and Marcus Antonius over Caesar's legacy. This allowed the liberatores to build an army in the Eastern provinces. Led by the son of Caesar's old arch-enemy, Sextus Pompeius, a fleet blocked the grain supply to Rome to starve the city. Marcus Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepidus came together and formed the so-called Second Triumvirate to defeat the liberatores to stop. The successors of Caesar were given the dictatorial mandate by the senate for this.

In 42 BC, Marcus Antonius and Octavian decisively defeated the armies of Cassius and Brutus in two battles at Macedonian Philippi. The leaders of the liberatores committed suicide one by one after both their defeats, to avoid capture. Marcus Antonius ensured that Brutus's body was treated with respect and buried, as the two had been close friends before the civil war, and Brutus would have only participated in Caesar's assassination if Antonius was spared. Marcus Antonius remained in the Eastern part of the Roman Empire, while Octavian returned to Italy.

On the home front, Octavian showed less mercy to their enemies and instigated a reign of terror comparable to Sulla's rule. The estates and possessions of Romans who sympathized with the liberatores or criticized the triumvirate were confiscated; traitors were brutally murdered.

Meanwhile, cracks had already developed in the triumvirate. Octavian managed to mislead Lepidus behind the army of the young Pompey in North Africa in 36 BC. Due to the poor performance of their general, Octavian was able to persuade large parts of Lepidus' army to defect to him. As a result, he became the ruler in the west and Lepidus was out of the triumvirate. Marcus Antonius began to behave like a Hellenistic king at the same time and became dependent on the Egyptian queen Cleopatra from that same year, who had been placed on the throne by Caesar 10 years earlier. Marcus Antonius broke off his marriage with Octavian's sister and became the stepfather of Caesarion, the child Cleopatra had with Caesar. Between 33 and 32 BC, Octavian succeeded in turning the Roman people and the senate against Marcus Antonius by effectively using propaganda depicting him as a traitor and eastern despot, who, under Cleopatra's influence, wanted to turn the Eastern part of the Roman Empire into a Ptolemaic kingdom.

Octavian had become the favored successor of Caesar in the eyes of the senate, the people, and the armies of Rome. In 31 BC, with the help of his general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, he defeated the Ptolemaic naval forces at Actium in Greece; the following year, he conquered Egypt. Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra committed suicide shortly after each other, and Octavian had the young Caesarion executed. With this, Octavian achieved final victory and was not only the most powerful man in the Roman Empire but also in the (former) Hellenistic world.

Because he had brought an end to nearly a centuries-long series of civil wars, Octavian was received in Rome as a hero. He retained the dictatorial power from the triumvirate and was elected consul year after year. In 27 BC, he was given a new title by the senate, Augustus (the exalted), which emphasized him as a figure appointed by the gods to rule over Rome. Although he was this in all but name, he ensured that he was never considered a monarch. He allowed the senate to continue and, besides 'the exalted', he did not receive the title of emperor, but princeps: the 'first among equals', of the senate (princeps senatus) and the people of Rome (princeps civitas). This title was also unofficially used by the consuls of the republic, and in this way, Augustus managed to ground his appointment as sole ruler in the traditions of Rome. Although he was seen as the man who had restored the republic, he was, in fact, the one who delivered the final blow to the old political structure.

To ensure that his sole rule was accepted, Augustus provided a great deal of propaganda. For this, he made very effective use of Roman symbolism and tradition, which he subtly reformed to justify his power and present himself as a man of action who had ensured peace and stability. The imperial cult that emerged did not depict him as a despot or military ruler, but as a pater patriae, a sort of 'father of the people' who was the ultimate patron with all Romans as his clients. Just as a father in the patriarchal Roman society ruled over the family, Augustus ruled over the Roman Empire.

Especially the bringing of peace was strongly emphasized in his propaganda. For instance, in 29 BC, after the death of Cleopatra and Marcus Antonius, he had the doors of the temple of Janus in Rome closed. These doors had been an important symbol in Roman society since the time of the kings: they remained closed during peacetime and were opened when Rome was on the warpath. Throughout the entire history of Rome up to the time of Augustus, the doors had only been closed a few times for short periods; the last time was more than 200 years ago, after the end of the First Punic War in 241 BC. With this, the emperor symbolized that after the wars with Carthage, the conflicts with the Gauls and other Latin peoples, and finally all the civil wars, he had finally brought peace back to Rome. He also had texts such as the Res Gestae Divi Augusti (the deeds of the divine Augustus) spread throughout the empire in the form of inscriptions, a kind of first-person accounts in which he described his achievements and benevolence to the people.

Although he portrayed himself as a bringer of peace, Augustus soon set Rome on the warpath. Under his rule, the Romans conquered the last parts of Iberia, the Alps, and the Danube regions. He also attempted to conquer Germany up to the Elbe, but this failed with a spectacular defeat, the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in the year 9 AD. Ultimately, Augustus died in 14 AD, and his adopted descendants would succeed him; laying the foundation for a dynasty that would bring anything but peace to the Roman Empire in the coming century.

The armor of the legionary was provided by the Roman government during the Principate. They produced armor, weapons, and clothing in special fabricae, workshops throughout the empire. Weaponry was produced and reused on a large scale, which ensured the equipment of the legions was consistent. The distinction between the hastati, principes, and triarii had disappeared during this period. Instead, the army was composed of legionaries, auxiliary cavalry, and auxiliary archers. The advantage of this was the focus on a consistent type of infantry with consistent armament, training, and organization

The equipment of a legionary was designed to be as practical and functional as possible. A legionary had to be able to fight in his full gear, as well as march long distances in a day or stand guard for extended periods.

Roman legionaries like Publius had similar clothing and equipment, but were not uniform. Although they were assigned their gear by the Roman state, much was also shared or inherited from previous generations. For instance, Publius received his helmet, shield, gladius, belt, and sandals from the state, but he wears the old chainmail shirt and the spear of his father Titus, an old veteran who fought in the thirteenth legion under Caesar in Gaul and during the civil war against Pompey.

In Roman society, the woolen (or linen) Tunica was the primary garment for both men and women. During the republican period, it was very fashionable to make these long and flowing to give the same appearance as the more formal toga worn by Roman citizens. However, this was not practical for legionaries, and therefore they wore a short tunic.

The tunic that Publius wears is made of wool and is red dyed. In modern depictions, Legionaries often wear red, because this colour symbolized the war god Mars. However, it is unclear whether legionaries wore a colored tunic at all, as the state produced their equipment as cheaply as possible. Also, the colour was not uniform per legion (or even per cohort). Soldiers often wore tunics from other batches or received clothing sent from home.

The head opening of the tunic is quite wide: therefore, Publius, like other legionaries, wears a scarf to ensure that his collarbones and shoulders are protected from possible blisters or skin irritation from the lorica hamata.

The belt that Publius wears is not only intended to attach his gladius, but also as a symbol of his warrior status. Only Roman soldiers were allowed to wear these, both on and off duty. These belts have been found in many different designs and were often richly decorated by soldiers, as they had little else to spend their wages on during their stationing. This was often done with a series of plates (lamna) and from the first century AD, a type of apron with decorated pendants (baltea): these were made of brass or tin. There are also many depictions from the first century BC of cingula in a 'cowboy' construction, where two belts were worn crossed over each other. This was probably reserved for the wealthiest legionnaires, who could afford two decorated belts.

The sandals that Publius wears are a practical military model worn by legionaries. Military sandals were comfortable and light in design: this allowed soldiers to perform hard work, stand guard for long periods, and march great distances per day without developing blisters. The sandals were fitted by soldiers themselves with nails to provide grip on unpaved or natural ground. They could also be used to finish off fallen enemies on the battlefield as the Roman units marched over them.

Sandals wore out the fastest of any part of the military equipment: often a soldier needed a new pair each year. As a result, a huge number was produced annually in the military fabricae. This also meant that, unlike the rest of the equipment, they could not be passed down from generation to generation by a legionary.

Publius carries a cloak for cold or bad weather. The Roman cloak was a large piece of wool, held in place with a fibula. Roman soldiers wore cloaks to keep themselves warm and dry: the latter was very important to protect the equipment from rust or dirt. They may also have played a role in night operations, to camouflage legionaries. The cloak could even be used to protect the arm during a fight: there is an account of legionaries being ambushed by the enemy without shield and wrapping their cloaks around their forearms to use as shield.

From wall paintings, it can be deduced that Roman legionaries often wore brown, beige, and gray cloaks. This was because the cloaks were made of undyed wool, so the natural oil of the sheep could keep the cloak water-resistant. Centurions and other field commanders wore red, white, or even purple cloaks to stand out: Julius Caesar was known to wear his cloak during battles for dramatic effect. The cloak also became an increasingly important part of the equipment of legionaries as their empire expanded further north.

To protect his body, Publius uses the large republican scutum (shield) and wears a Galea helmet and a lorica hamata (chainmail shirt). To fight, he uses a pilum (a heavy javelin) and a gladius (a short sword).

Publius wears an imperial Galea to protect his head, a helmet of a model that, like the earlier Roman Montefortino and Coolus helmets, was based on Celtic models. However, this helmet was made of iron, had special ear holes for better hearing, and a further developed plate that protects the wearer's neck and back. Like other legionaries, Publius has written his name in his helmet so he knows which one is his. He also wrote the abbreviated name of his legion (secunda augusta) next to it, although most soldiers do not do this. 

The Lorica hamata was a Roman chainmail shirt worn by Roman soldiers from the third century BC to the fourth century AD. Sleeves were often omitted to make it more comfortable to wear for long periods, especially during marches. Mail armor was possibly directly adopted from the Celts, as the La-Tène culture invented this form of armor around 400 BC. In the 4th-2nd century BC, the lorica hamata was very expensive and only the wealthiest could afford a lorica hamata: as a result, it was almost exclusively worn by the Triarii and Equites.

It seems that from around 120 BC, the Lorica hamata had become a standard part of the legionary equipment. During the late Republic and the Imperial period, the lorica hamata was provided by the state, just like the other parts of the armament. However, Publius inherited his chainmail shirt from his father Titus.

Legionaries in the late republic and early imperial period had a pilum or two pila as part of their equipment. This was a heavy javelin, thrown at the enemy before the legionaries launched an assault. The weapon could also be used as an ordinary spear.

From the 4th century BC, the Romans used the scutum, probably adopted from the Celts just like the Montefortino helmet and the Lorica Hamata. In the late republic, it was approximately 130 cm long and oval-shaped, but in the imperial period, it was shield shorter (about 110 cm) and took on a rectangular shape, which was slightly curved. This made the imperial shield lighter, allowing legionaries to march longer. It also allowed the Romans to form new formations, such as the well-known testudo, which was specially developed for sieges.

From the second century BC to the third century AD, the Romans generally used the 'Gladius Hispaniensis' (Spanish sword), which was adopted from Iberian tribes during the Punic Wars. It was the primary weapon of the legionary after throwing the pilum and could be used for both chopping and thrusting.

The imperial Roman gladius had a leaf-shaped blade and was generally slightly shorter in length than the republican Gladii. In this early imperial period, the Gladius was still attached to the belt, but later it would hang from a bandolier over the shoulder. Publius uses a gladius of the Mainz type, a short variant with a wide blade.