Roman Army: Late Principate

In this blog, we're diving into the Roman army in the 3rd century AD. This period is characterized by the major crisis also known as military anarchy.

The Crisis of the 3rd Century

The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent under Hadrian (117-138). From the 3rd century onwards, Rome, instead of waging war and conquering new territories, found itself increasingly on the defensive against plundering enemies and civil wars. As a result, the essential source of income obtained through plundering enemy lands dried up.

Instead, the countryside fell victim to economic devastation by raiders. Regular civil wars contributed to the exhaustion of the army's manpower, and recruiting replacement soldiers put further pressure on the working population.

Corruption and Inflation

The Roman aristocracy developed a kleptocracy where power and self-interest came first. The legions participated in this too. In addition to their regular pay, soldiers received bonuses, for example upon the appointment of new emperors or of the Tribuni or Consul who wanted to secure their power. This bonus culture meant that a legionnaire's loyalty went to whoever offered the best bonus. War meant bonuses, and so the armies created their own work. In times without external war, they weren't reluctant to proclaim their own general as emperor and start a civil war. The army needed increasingly large bribes to remain loyal. Septimius Severus therefore raised the soldiers' pay and gave considerable donativum to the troops. But the large and continuous increase in these expenses caused problems for all his successors. His son Caracalla raised the annual pay once more and gave the army many privileges in accordance with his father's advice to maintain their loyalty.

A similar form of bribery can be seen in populist bread and circuses and other political campaigns. This only led to even more corruption and inflation.

As a result, the 3rd century AD was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressure of repeated foreign invasions, civil wars, and economic inflation.

Throne Claimants

During the crisis, there were at least 26 people claiming the imperial title, mostly prominent Roman generals who seized imperial power over all or parts of the empire. An equal number of men were recognized by the Roman Senate as legitimate emperor during this period.

The Divided Empire

At the height of the crisis in 268, the empire had split into three competing states: the Gallic Empire (with the Roman provinces of Gaul, Britannia, and temporarily Hispania), the Palmyrene Empire (with the eastern provinces of Syria, Palaestina, and Aegyptus), and between them the Roman Empire, with Italy as its power center.

The Formation of an Egalitarian Culture in the Roman Army

In 212 AD, Emperor Caracalla granted citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire through his Constitutio Antoniniana. This meant that no distinction was made between citizens, which were mainly ethnic Italians, and non-citizens (peregrini). This resulted in all free citizens being able to participate as legionnaires in the army. From that point on, the division between legionnaires and auxilia troops was removed, and both began to increasingly resemble each other. This also meant that superiority and its associated performance culture became more centered on the individual rather than ethnicity. As a result, it became important to recruit more specialized troops from the foederati, allies of the Roman empire from non-Roman territories. Foederati were far from always reliable, and between the 3rd and 5th centuries, relations with these peoples regularly alternated between alliance and war.

Major Changes

Both the disappearance of the auxilia and the influx of foederati had an increasingly large impact after the second half of the 3rd century AD. Legionnaires from the first half of the 3rd century were still recognizable as the stereotype 'legionnaire,' but this changed in the second half of the 3rd century AD, with a mixed culture emerging between Roman and mainly Germanic. This change could be seen in everything, including clothing, art, and armor.

Border Conflicts

Due to numerous internal conflicts, the Roman armies were no longer able to defend the borders of the Empire as they had done before. This led to multiple invasions by 'barbarian peoples.' There were frequent invasions along the Rhine and Danube borders by tribes, including the Goths, Vandals, and Alemanni, as well as attacks by the Sassanids in the east.

Equipment of 'Legionnaires'

In the first half of the 3rd century AD, the equipment of the legionnaire changed. This was possibly partly due to Germanic influences in the army. Legionnaires from this time were still recognizable as the 'stereotype' legionnaire, whereas this would change in the second half of the 3rd century.

Around this time, the galea type helmet was increasingly replaced by the Niederbieber type helmets. These helmets were more closed, with cheek guards that protected a larger portion of the side of the face. The eyebrow guard was also broader, so this rim increasingly offered protection against downward blows and falling projectiles, much like later medieval pot helmets. Although it was originally stated that this helmet type was used exclusively by cavalry, this is incorrect. Infantry also used these helmets; only helmets with a face mask were probably used solely for cavalry purposes.

The lorica segmentata remained in use but gradually fell into disuse. The lorica squamata and the lorica hamata or mail coat were popular with both infantrymen and cavalry.

The scutum remained in use until the second half of the 3rd century, but was subsequently phased out for an oval type shield.

Around this time, the pilum was equipped with an extra broad ball, possibly to keep this throwing spear straight in the air or to give it more impact.

This was the last period in which certain models of the gladius were used; afterwards, it was completely replaced by the longer spatha. The clothing of 'legionnaires' from this time was strongly influenced by Germanic style, trousers became acceptable, and shorter tunics and Germanic types of cloaks were worn.

The provision of more protective and expensive armor to legionnaires was probably due to non-military reasons: the army emphasized their social superiority, just as it did with higher wages. During the 3rd century, when all peregrini received citizenship and legionnaires thereby lost their social superiority, the lorica segmentata and scutum disappeared.

In the 3rd century, the segmentata appear to have been phased out, and troops are depicted with mail coats (mainly) or scale armor, the standard armor of the auxilia from the 2nd century.

The End of the Crisis

The reign of Aurelianus (270–275) marked a turning point in this crisis period. Aurelianus was able to reunite the empire by defeating the two separated states and implemented a series of reforms that helped restore some stability to the Roman economy. The end of the crisis is considered to be the moment when Diocletian took power in 284 and thoroughly reformed the Roman imperial government, economy, and army. The military reforms in particular are seen as a crucial turning point in Roman history, marking the beginning of the Dominate period.

Rome lost its role as the political center of the empire during the third century, though it remained ideologically important. To legitimize and secure their rule, third-century emperors needed military successes above all. The decision-making center shifted away from Rome to the places where the emperor was with his armies, usually in the east. This led to the relocation of the capital to four cities: Milan, Trier, Nicomediae, and Sirmium, and later to Constantinople. The Senate ceased to be the most important governing body, and instead, members of the equestrian order, who formed the officer corps of the army, gained increasing influence.

The Transition to the Dominate

The Dominate is a period in the history of the Roman Empire during the late antiquity. It followed the phase known as the Principate. The beginning of the Dominate is usually placed at the accession of Emperor Diocletian in 284, after the crisis of the third century (235–284).

The Dominate is often seen as a more authoritarian, less collegial, and bureaucratic system of government than the Principate from which it emerged. This form of government arose as a reaction to fifty years of chaos during the third-century crisis. The continuous throne claimants, military uprisings, and border conflicts exposed the weaknesses of Roman rule. This led to a gradual shift from collegial emperorship to more autocratic rule from 285 onwards.

Important features of the Dominate included the exclusion of the senatorial elite from high military positions and the rise of the equites (the equestrian order), the reform of the army with the establishment of mobile field armies, changes in imperial clothing and ceremonial customs, a religious policy aimed at unity, large-scale monetary reforms, and the formation of an empire-wide bureaucracy.

Although Diocletian is often seen as the founder of the Dominate, many innovations originated with earlier emperors, particularly Aurelianus (270–275). Some reforms even go back to the reigns of Gallienus (253–268) and Trajan (98–117), under whom the equestrians took on an increasingly important role in the government of Rome and the empire. The transition to the Dominate was thus not a sudden change; only under Constantine the Great, around 337, were the reforms largely completed.

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