This blog follows the Roman legionary Titus in the year 54 BCE of the thirteenth legion. He fights alongside the Gauls under his commander and proconsul, Gaius Julius Caesar.
The Late Roman Republic
Since the expulsion of the kings in 509 BCE until the announcement of the principate in 27 BCE, Rome was a republic. It was in this period a bureaucratic state ruled by two consuls, heads of state elected by the senate. The idea of the republic formed the foundation for Roman identity; the Romans never called themselves an empire until the fall of the western realm. Although much of our current politics can be traced back to the Roman Republic. Society was very hierarchically organized and shaped by patron-client relationships, even within the privileged citizenry. Noble senatorial families stood at the top, followed by equites (knights) and plebeians. Below them existed an underclass of proletarians and slaves who had no say.
Throughout the history of the late Roman Republic, the legions played an important political role. Because of the professionalization of the army, campaigns lasted longer and legionaries became dependent on their pay and war booty for their livelihood, which they received from their general. This made them loyal to individual military commanders with military skill (especially to governors, who had a long term in office) and not so much to the Roman Senate.
In the late republic there had been a series of political conflicts between (put simply) two different political groups, the populares who were in favor of land reform and more political participation of the plebs and proletariat, or the aristocratic optimates who opposed this. The civil wars came to an end with the reign of terror by the optimates general Sulla between 82-80 BCE. He was able to appoint himself dictator through his military power, and during two years would massively murder his political opponents with his bloody proscriptions and seize their possessions for himself and his allies. He also brought major political reforms that (with and without violence) severely limited the power of the tribunes of the plebs. The balance of power in government thus shifted almost completely to the aristocracy.
Because of this, after his death there was great fear that a legion under another demagogue like Sulla could pose a threat to Rome. In the following years this was recognized by the senate and Roman governors were not allowed to leave their provinces with their legions. It was also strictly forbidden for Roman military commanders to march into Italy with a mobilized army: for triumphal processions within the city, the army had to first be officially discharged.
Julius Caesar and the First Triumvirate
The struggle between the optimates and populares was completely halted by Sulla's bloody regime. Sympathies remained, however, and in 70 BCE Gnaeus Pompeius and Marcus Licinius Crassus, the two most powerful generals of the republic, became consuls together to reverse Sulla's strong restrictions on the tribunes of the plebs and give the people more say in politics. They were populares, but it shouldn't be thought that they were radical reformers who fought for the lowest classes in society. For instance, Pompeius had served under Sulla, and Crassus was besides being Rome's biggest slumlord (through his famous fire brigades) the commander of the army that had brutally crushed the slave uprising of Spartacus.
Meanwhile, a young politician was rising in Rome: Gaius Julius Caesar, who had cleverly and boldly climbed the political ladder. He had become very popular with the people because he was very generous to his clients, openly expressed his sympathies for former populares, and even had to flee from Sulla's revenge because of his political statements. After the dictator's death, Caesar returned and prosecuted his former tormentors and accomplices; an action that further raised his reputation in the eyes of the Roman people.
To maintain the balance of power between the three great figures and prevent civil war, the 'first' triumvirate was established between Pompeius, Crassus, and Caesar (this name was, however, later given to this informal triumvirate, after the 'real' triumvirate of Octavianus, Marcus Antonius, and Lepidus). Together with the famous orator Marcus Tullius Cicero, the three rulers crushed a conspiracy to bring a new dictator to power. They also ensured that all three could acquire the important government positions they desired. Thus Caesar was elected consul and proconsul of trans-Alpine Gaul, where he achieved great victories.
The Gallic Wars
When Caesar was appointed governor of Gaul, he waged war against Gallic tribes to protect Rome's borders. However, this border conflict escalated into a major war of conquest. Through Caesar's cunning strategies and loyal legions, the Romans managed to bring all of Gaul up to the Rhine and the Channel under their rule between 58 and 50 BCE. The Gallic king Vercingetorix tried to unite the various tribes against Caesar, but this was in vain.
Caesar's legions were the best trained of the entire republic and were completely loyal to him. Many of his legionaries came from families that had served under Marius. He had also become even more popular with the Roman population through his victories: this created great fear in the Senate that he would follow Sulla as a demagogue. In 56 BCE Crassus died in his war against the Parthians in Syria and the triumvirate came to an end.
Meanwhile, there was much unrest in Rome: the tribune of the plebs Publius Clodius had enacted a grain law that caused the poor to come to Rome in large numbers. The city had become a political powder keg in recent periods and violence regularly broke out in the streets. Pompeius was given special powers to manage this grain supply and keep the street terror in Rome in check: meanwhile, he switched sides to the optimates in an attempt to seize power himself.
Because of Caesar's success, Pompeius and the optimates decided at the end of 50 BCE to jointly bring down the popular general; they declared him a traitor to the republic and demanded he disband his army. Caesar went all in and caused a constitutional crisis when in the following year he left his province of Gaul and crossed the stream of the Rubicon (the Roman border between Gaul and Italy) toward Rome. This crisis and the subsequent civil wars brought a thunderous end to the Republican period and led to the establishment of an empire under Augustus in 27 BCE. However, the Romans would continue to call their realm a republic until the fall of the Eastern Roman Senate in 602.
The Equipment of Titus, the Republican Legionary
The armor of the legionary was provided by the Roman government during the late republic. This produced armor, weapons, and clothing in special fabricae, workshops throughout the empire. Weapon equipment was produced and reused on a large scale: this made the equipment of the legions consistent. The difference between the hastati, principes, and triarii had disappeared in this period. Instead, the army was composed of Legionaries, auxiliary cavalry, and auxiliary archers. The advantage of this was that the focus was on a consistent type of infantry with consistent weapons, training, and organization.
The equipment of a legionary was designed to be as practical and functional as possible. A legionary had to not only be able to fight in his full equipment, but also march great distances in a day or stand watch for long periods.
Roman legionaries like Titus had similar clothing and equipment, but were not uniformly dressed. Although they received their equipment from the Roman state, much was also shared or inherited from previous generations. For example, Titus received his mail shirt, spear, shield, belt, and sandals from the state, but wears the old helmet and gladius of his uncle, an old veteran who fought under Marius in the Social War and the defense of Rome against Sulla. Titus' tunic and cloak were made for him by his mother and sent to him from Rome.
Clothing
Tunica (Tunic)
In Roman society, the woolen (or linen) tunic was the most important piece of clothing for both men and women. In the republican period it was very fashionable to make it long and flowing, to give the same appearance as the more formal toga worn by Roman citizens. However, this was not practical for legionaries, so they wore a short tunic.
The tunic that Titus wears is made of wool and dyed red. In modern depictions, Legionaries often wear red, because this color was a symbol for the god of war Mars. However, it is unclear whether legionaries wore colored tunics at all, since the state had their equipment produced as cheaply as possible. Also, the color was not uniform per legion (or even per cohort). Soldiers often wore tunics from other batches, or received clothing sent from home: thus Titus' tunic was made for him by his mother.
Neck Cloth
The neckline of the tunic is quite wide: that's why Titus, like other legionaries, wears a scarf to ensure that his collarbones and shoulders are protected against possible blisters or skin irritation from the lorica hamata.
Cingulum (Belt)
The belt that Titus wears is not only meant to fasten his gladius, but also as a symbol of his warrior status. Only Roman soldiers were allowed to wear this, both on and off duty. These belts have been found in many different versions and in many cases were richly decorated by soldiers, since they had little else to spend their pay on during their posting. This was often done with a series of plates (lamna) and from the first century CE a sort of skirt of decorated hangers (baltea): these were made of brass or tin. From the first century BCE there are also many depictions of cingula in a 'cowboy' construction, where two belts were worn crossed over each other.
Calligae (Sandals)
The sandals that Titus wears are a practical military model worn by legionaries. Military sandals were comfortable and light in design: this allowed soldiers to do hard work, stand guard for long periods, and march great distances in a day without developing blisters. The sandals were furnished with nails by the soldiers themselves to provide grip on unpaved or natural ground. With these, fallen enemies on the battlefield could also be finished off as Roman units marched over them.
Sandals wore out faster than any other part of military equipment: often a soldier needed a new pair every year. This meant that an enormous number were produced each year in the military fabricae. This also meant that unlike the rest of the equipment, sandals could not be passed down from one legionary to the next generation.
Sagum (Cloak)
Titus has a cloak with him for cold or bad weather. The Roman cloak was a large piece of wool, held in place with a fibula. Roman soldiers wore cloaks to keep themselves warm and dry: the latter was very
