In this blog we follow Servius, a Roman legionary of the second legion under Titus Flavius Vespasianus in the year 43 AD. He is a tesserarius (captain of the guard) in Noviomagus Reginorum in Great Britain, a military camp that was set up as part of the Roman invasion of the British island by Emperor Claudius.
The Early Imperial Period
From 27 BC, the Roman Empire was ruled by an emperor, the princeps (first) or imperator (commander). He possessed the powers of the most important magistrates from the republican periods combined and was not only the sole ruler and highest military leader, but also the religious leader of the empire. The emperor cult that had been established by Augustus depicted the emperor not as a despot or military ruler, but as a pater patriae, a sort of divine 'father of the people' who was the ultimate patron with all Romans as his clients. Just as a father in patriarchal Roman society ruled over the family, the emperor ruled over the Roman Empire.
Early emperors were succeeded by their (adopted) children, the dynasties ruled over Rome. The names Caesar and Augustus were inherited just like the titles princeps and imperator were. Although they were a king in everything but name, the emperors made sure they were not regarded as a monarch. The title princeps meant after all the 'first among equals', of both the senate (princeps senatus) and the people of Rome (princeps civitas). This title was also used unofficially by the consuls, the elected leaders of the republic, an important choice of words. For although Rome at this time was functionally no longer a republic, the ideal of the republic formed the foundation of Roman identity. The Romans continued to call themselves a republic right up to the fall of the western empire in 476.
Although Augustus had managed to justify the position of emperor by (allegedly) bringing stability and peace, there was much conflict and succession struggle within the dynasty he left behind. Emperors were after all not elected, which, like a monarchy, led to very unpredictable succession. The Praetorian Guard that Augustus had established as the bodyguard of himself and the imperial family also played an important role in imperial politics, in conflict with the senate; in particular through the deposition and election of emperors. This is for example evident when Emperor Caligula in 41 AD was murdered after an autocratic reign of terror by a conspiracy of senators and his cousin Claudius was appointed by the Praetorian Guard as the new imperator.
The Roman Conquest of Great Britain
In 43 AD, Emperor Claudius began the conquest of Great Britain, which had previously been visited by Caesar and the thirteenth legion. He did this to secure his popularity in the army and his power position as emperor. One of the blunders of his predecessor, the aforementioned Caligula, was the cancellation of a planned invasion of the British island. By continuing these plans, Claudius ensured an influx of wealth and prestige for the imperial house, after a period of humiliation and weakening.
On the British island, a conflict had also arisen which Claudius could make good use of; the British-Celtic tribe of the Atrebates, which was a Roman ally, was at that time being attacked by the anti-Roman Catuvellauni. This allowed the Romans to present their invasion as an expedition to aid the Atrebates. The Roman invasion force of approximately 40,000 men departed in the summer of 43 from Gaul to the British south coast, although historians are not entirely in agreement on exactly where it departed from and where it landed. The Atrebates granted the Roman army places to settle and set up winter camps. An example of this is Noviomagus Reginorum, which was used by the second legion of the future Emperor Vespasianus.
The Roman army marched from the coast inland and won important battles at the British rivers without too much trouble, where the Catuvellauni were definitively defeated. Emperor Claudius had no military character himself and came only after a number of British-Celtic tribes had surrendered that same year. This early Roman conquest was such a success that Claudius, according to the Roman historian Cassius Dio, was recalled to Rome after only 16 days to hold a triumphal procession. In the coming decades, the conquest of the British island would prove to be more work than expected. The instability of the Roman imperial house, uprisings such as that of Queen Boudica, and constant border conflicts with the Picts in the rugged north would prevent the Romans from getting all of Great Britain in their hands.
The Army of the Principate and the Equipment of a Legionary
Besides establishing the Praetorian Guard, the military organization of the principate was adopted from the late republic. The armor of the legionary was provided by the Roman government during the principate. It produced armor, weapons and clothing in special fabricae, workshops throughout the empire. Weapons equipment was produced and reused on a large scale: this made the equipment of the legions consistent. The difference between the hastati, principes and triarii had ceased to exist in this period. Instead, the army was composed of Legionaries, auxiliary cavalry and auxiliary archers. The advantage of this was that the focus was on a consistent type of infantry with consistent armament, training and organization.
The equipment of a legionary was intended to be as practical and functional as possible. A legionary had to be able to fight in his full equipment, but also march great distances in a day or stand watch for long periods.
Roman legionaries like Servius had similar clothing and equipment, but were not uniform. Although they were assigned their equipment by the Roman state, much was also shared or taken from previous generations. So Servius received his helmet, shield, gladius, belt and sandals from the state, but he wears the old mail shirt of his grandfather Publius, who fought in the second legion under Emperor Augustus.
The Equipment of Servius the Legionary
Clothing
Tunica (Tunic)
In Roman society, the woolen (or linen) tunic was the most important piece of clothing for both men and women. During the republican period, it was very fashionable to make it long and flowing, to give the same appearance as the more formal toga worn by Roman citizens. However, this was not practical for legionaries and therefore they wore a short tunica.
The tunic that Servius wears is made of wool and dyed red. In modern depictions, legionaries often wear red, because this color was a symbol for the god of war Mars. However, it is unclear whether legionaries wore a colored tunica at all, since the state had their equipment produced as cheaply as possible. Also, the color was not uniform per legion (or even per cohort). Soldiers often wore tunics from other batches, or received clothing sent from home.
Neck Cloth
The neckline of the tunic is quite wide: therefore Servius, like other legionaries, wears a scarf to ensure that his collarbones and shoulders are protected against possible blisters or skin irritation from the lorica hamata.
Cingulum & cintus (Belts)
The belt that Servius wears is not only intended to attach his gladius and pugio to, but also as a symbol of his warrior status. Only Roman soldiers were allowed to wear these, both on and off duty. These belts are found in many different versions and were in many cases richly decorated by soldiers, since they didn't have much else to spend their wages on during their stationing. Often this was done with a series of plates (lamna) and from the first century AD a kind of apron of decorated hangers (baltea): these were made of brass or tin. There are also many images from the first century BC of cingula in a 'cowboy' construction, where two belts were worn crossed over each other. This was probably reserved for the richest legionaries, who could afford two decorated belts.
Caligae (Sandals)
The sandals that Servius wears are a practical military model worn by legionaries. Military sandals were comfortable and light in design: this allowed soldiers to do hard work, stand watch for long periods and march great distances in a day without developing blisters. The sandals were provided by soldiers themselves with nails to provide grip on unpaved or natural ground. With these they could also finish off fallen enemies on the battlefield as Roman units marched over them.
Sandals wore out faster than any other part of military equipment: often a soldier needed a new pair every year. This meant that a huge number were produced each year in military fabricae. This also meant that, unlike the rest of the equipment, a legionary could not pass sandals down from generation to generation.
Sagum (Cloak)
Servius carries a cloak with him for cold or bad weather. The Roman cloak was a large piece of wool, held together with a fibula. Roman soldiers wore cloaks to keep themselves warm and dry: the latter was very important to protect the equipment against rust or dirt. They may also have played a role in night operations, to camouflage legionaries. The cloak could even be used to protect the arm during a fight: there is an account of legionaries who were attacked by the enemy without a shield and wrapped their cloaks around their forearm to use as a shield.
From murals it can be inferred that Roman legionaries mostly wore brown, beige and gray cloaks. This was because the cloaks were made from undyed wool, so the natural oil of the sheep could keep the cloak waterproof. Centurions and other field commanders wore red, white or even purple cloaks to stand out: Julius Caesar was known for wearing his cloak even during battles for dramatic effect. The cloak also became an increasingly important part of the equipment of Legionaries as their empire expanded further north.
For the wet, cold weather in Britain, a cloak is indispensable. To close it, Servius uses a fibula that he looted from a Celtic warrior on the battlefield. This form of cloak fastening came from Britain and would be spread by
